The following paragraphs are extracted from the book:
Islam and Modernism in Egypt: a study of the modern reform movement inaugurated by Muhammad ‘Abduh (1933) by Charles C. Adam
He opposed the principle of taqleed which prevailed in the traditional Muslim scholarship (i.e. acceptance of belief on the authority of others, without question or objection) and reaffirmed the primacy of reason which is taught in the Quran.
‘I raised my voice to free the mind from the chains of belief on authority (Taqleed). Islam clearly declares that man was not created to be led by a halter, but that it is his nature to be guided by science and by signs of the universe and the indications of events and that teachers are only those who arouse and direct and guide into the way of investigation.’
How far those who believe in Taqleed are from the guidance of the Qur’an. It propounds its laws in a way that prepares us to use reason, and makes us people of insight. … It forbids us to submit to Taqleed. But they command us to follow their words blindly; and if one attempts to follow the Qur’an and Usage of the Prophet, they oppose him with denial, supposing that in so doing they are preserving the religion. On the contrary, nothing else but this has vitiated the religion; and if we continue to follow this method of blind acceptance, no one will be left who holds this religion. But if we return to that reason to which God directs us in this verse, and other verses like it, there is hope that we can revive our religion. Thus it will be the religion of reason, to which all the nations shall have recourse.’
Islam set free the authority of the intellect from everything that had kept it in chains, and delivered it from all belief on authority that had kept it enslaved, and restored it to its kingdom, in which it should rule by its judgment and its wisdom ; at the same time, submitting to God alone in what it does, and coming to a stop within the limits imposed by the Divine Law. But there is no limit to what may be done within its limits, and there is no end to the speculation that may be conducted under its standards.’
His comment on chapter ii, verse 171, may be taken as typical.
The verse reads: The parable of those who reject faith is like the cattle which, call out to them as one may, hear nothing but a shout and a cry since they are unable to understand; they are deaf, dumb and blind, and understand nothing
This verse clearly announces that belief on authority, without reason and guidance, is a characteristic of the godless. For one becomes a believer only when he grasps his religion with reason, and comprehends it with his soul, so that he becomes fully convinced of it. But he who is trained to simply admit, without the use of reason, and to practice without thinking — even though it is something good — he is not to be called a believer. For the design of faith is not this, that a man should be drilled for the good, as though he were trained for it like an animal ; rather, that the reason and soul of the man should be elevated by knowledge and comprehension . . . and that he should practice the good, not only for the reason that he is thoughtlessly imitating his fathers and ancestors. For this reason, the Qur’an here calls the unbelievers “deaf, dumb, blind, who have no understanding”.’
The principle, upon which the advocates of taqleed based their claims, was that of reverence for the early generations of Muslims, who alone, they asserted, were capable of interpreting Islam. For this reason, the right of ijtihad, or independent investigation for the purpose of forming one’s own opinion on any matter of religion, was denied to later generations. Muhammad ‘Abduh, on the contrary, claimed equal participation of all generations, and the right of ijtihad for the present generation, as for all others. Thus he says:
‘Islam turned aside the hearts of men from exclusive attachment to customs and practices of the fathers, which had been handed down from father to son. It attributed folly to those who accept blindly the words of their predecessors. And it called attention to the fact, that precedence in point of time is not one of the signs of knowledge, nor a mark of superiority of intellect or intelligence ; but that the preceding generations and the later are on an equality so far as critical acumen and natural abilities are concerned. Indeed, the later generations have a knowledge of past circumstances, and a capacity to reflect upon them, and to profit by the effects of them in the world, which have survived until their times, that the fathers and forefathers who preceded
It is particularly in the treatment of the canon law of Islam, that Muhammad ‘Abduh and his followers demand the right of independent investigation.
His belief in the necessity of the use of reason, and the right of each man to do so in his own way, appears frequently in all parts of his writings. He urged tolerance among the adherents of the different sects of Muslims, and between Muslims and the adherents of other religions. In many matters of inter- pretation and belief he allowed individual freedom. Thus, at the conclusion of his Risalah, he writes:
‘If any man believes in the Revered Book and its practical laws, but finds difficulty in understanding in its literal sense what it says concerning the Unseen World ; and if he, by the use of his reason, adopts as his interpretation truths for which he adduces proofs, while at the same time retaining his belief in a life after death and in rewards and punishments for actions and beliefs ; it being under- stood, that his interpretation does not detract anything from the value of the threats and promises, and does not destroy any part of the structure of the Divine Law as concerns its imposing of responsibility — that man is a true believer, even though it is not proper that his example in so interpreting should be followed. For in the Divine Laws, regard has been had to what the ability of the commonalty can attain to, not what the intellects of the few aspire to. And the principle in this is, that faith is assurance in one’s belief regarding God, and His apostles, and the Last Day, with no restriction therein except the maintenance of reverence for what has been revealed by the prophets.’
Performance of the stated prayers is one of the most important duties prescribed by Islam. ÔAbduh recognized it as the central duty of all, and sought to enhance its religious value as an act of worship in which both heart and mind are engaged as well as the body. This appears clearly in his comment on Surah ii. verse 139.
The prayer which is much described and much praised in the Qur’an, he says, is ‘the turning towards God, and the presence of the heart before Him, and entire immersion in the consciousness of His awe-inspiring greatness and His majesty and omnipotence. This is the prayer of which God says, ” It is a hard duty, indeed, but not to the humble” (Surah ii. 42). . . . The well-known forms are not meant, the upright position, the genuflexion, the prostration, especially not the recitation with the lips, all of which any lad able to grasp them can become accustomed to, and which we see practised by people who are accustomed to them, while at the same time they persistently commit evil deeds and forbidden acts.
What value, then, do such easily performed bodily movements have, that God describes them as difficult except to the humble? Those movements and words are prescribed only as a form of prayer to serve as a means to remind the neglectful and arouse the indifferent and to incite the one who is praying to turn to God.’
And again : ‘If one is unable to perform all these bodily movements, that fact does not prevent him from engaging in that heart worship which is the spirit of prayer and of all other religious duties.’